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Organizational strategies of irregular women workers
(November 10, 1998)
Jointly studied by
Korean Women Workers Associations United (KWWAU)
korean Women Studies Institute (KWSI)
Korean Confederation of Trade Unions (KCTU)
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Translator's Note : This is a section of a larger research paper (197 pages in Korean). The definition of "temporary workers" in Western countries is not identical to that in the Korean language, because forms of employment in Korea are very distorted. Therefore, we differentiate workers into "temporary workers", "irregular workers", and "dispatched workers".
The term of "irregular workers" includes various groups of workers such as day workers, hour-based workers, contractual workers, temporary workers, part-time workers, and students earning pocket money (the so-called 'arbeit' in Korea). As a type of "irregular workers", "temporary workers" have certain terms (usually 1 year) of contracts, while regular-based workers do not have written contracts.
'Dispatched workers' in Korea have contracts with manpower agencies. However, they are largely employed on a temporary basis by these agencies. They seldom receive the benefits to which they have rights under Korean labor laws. They lack job security.
Introduction
Research Background
During the current economic crisis when almost two million people have become unemployed, why should we discuss the employment situations of irregular workers and organizational strategies for irregular workers?
Our economy is undergoing a rapid transition from an era of high economic growth to one of low growth and high unemployment. In the course of this transition, the employment situation has become highly unstable and irregular workers have become prevalent in all industries.
Since the enactment of the so-called Dispatch Law following tripartite committee discussion, it has become possible to dispatch workers legally. The law was passed in spite of strong opposition within our society. It is not difficult to expect a rapid spread of this form of employment. In the so-called austere IMF era,
After the IMF's intervention in the Korean economy in December 1997
the principle of survival and competition of companies is prevalent, and furthermore the government backs companies.
Official statistics issued by the Ministry of Labor and the National Statistics Office, under-represent irregular workers. However, in May 1998, temporary and day workers accounted for 47 out of 100 workers. About 55% of them were women. In particular, in the IMF era, the first victims of lay-offs are women, as is largely reported by the mass media and women workers' organizations.
Under these conditions where irregular workers have rapidly increased, trade union and/or irregular workers seldom take organized action against their situation. In particular, the present enterprise-based trade union system centered on regular workers is restricted in its possibilities to represent and defend irregular workers' interests and demands. Hence, the issue of organizing irregular workers who can be found throughout society is an unavoidable and urgent task in the trade union movement and the women workers' movement.
Membership in Korean trade unions was 1.93 million (with an organizational rate of 18.6%) at its peak in 1987, but it has dropped every year since, to 1.61 million (12.7%) in late 1995 and 1.59 million (12.2%) in late 1996 (Kim, 1997).
Further, even in the case of women workers the necessity and urgency of organizing irregular female workers has been agreed upon, but in reality they are not regarded as a priority.
We have therefore carried our focus attention on the necessity of organizing irregular women workers whose numbers are increasing rapidly, and to the necessity of organizational strategies for them.
Methodology
1) Definition of irregular workers and target group
The criteria of workers' occupational status vary with their employment. But in reality no specific or accurate criteria or definitions have been established. Further, no social or legal agreement has been made regarding the term of 'an irregular worker' in Korea. It is therefore very difficult to establish an accurate definition. The definition differs between the government and scholars, and by country. In Korea, the term 'irregular worker' is used for what is termed in English a 'temporary worker' and is used as opposited to 'regular worker.'
Let's look at the definition of workers used by the Ministry of Labor and the National Statistics Office. At the moment, the <Annual Report on the Economically Active Population> published by the National Statistics Office classifies 'regular based workers' as those who do not have any specific terms of contracts
3) Translator's Note : Korean regular based workers, especially high salaried workers do not have contracts. This is secure in Korea.
or have more than one-year contracts; 'temporary workers' have contracts between one month and less than one year; and 'day workers' have less than one month's contracts.
On the other hand, <Survey on Establishment Labor Conditions> published by the Ministry of Labor defines 'regular workers' as those who have no specific terms of contracts or having more than one month contracts, 'temporary workers' as those having under one-month contracts, and 'day workers' as those employed on a daily basis.
However, these classifications are limited when it comes to representing what happens in reality. For example, dispatched workers rapidly spread cannot be found in official statistics. In addition, the definition of 'regular workers' by the Ministry of Labor is so broad that it under-represents irregular workers. This kind of statistical problem is always an obstacle in grasping accurate situations of irregular workers and in solving their problems.
This research defines 'irregular workers' as 'all whose employment cannot be prolonged and who have specific terms of employment'. Therefore, it contains various forms of employment such as temporary work (part-time work, contractual work,
4) Contractual employment in Korea is very complex. Employment with less than a one-year contract can be classified as contractual employment, but in reality contractual workers are usually forced to renew their contracts on a yearly basis, thus they are largely employed instead of regular workers in Korea.
and so on), dispatched work, hourly work, day works, and home-based workers.
Employment of Irregular Women Workers
Employment trends of irregular women workers
In September 1998, the economically active population was 21,622 in Korea. This represented 61.2% of the population of 35,338 above the age of 15. Compared to 62.5% in 1997, this shows a 1.0% decline. Male participation in the labor market decreased slightly in 1998. Women's participation increased slightly until 1997, but dropped rapidly after 1998 as shown in Table II-1-1. This shows that many women became unemployed under the current economic crisis. In addition, female participation in the economically active population decreased to 40.0%, which means that women's economic participation also dropped, since most of them joined the non-economically active population as they gave up seeking employment, due to their unvoluntary unemployment and lack of hope of finding new employment.
Table II-1-1 Changes in the economically active population by sex (unit ; thousand, %)
1995
1996
1997
1998. 9
Pop. above age 15
33,558(100.0)
34,182(100.0)
34,736(100.0)
35,338(100.0)
Economically active pop. (%)
Men (%)
Women (%)
20,797(62.0)
12,433(76.5)
8,363(48.3)
21,188(62.0)
12,620(76.1)
8,568(48.7)
21,604(62.2)
12,761(75.6)
8,843(49.5)
21,622(61.2)
12,972(75.5)
8,650(47.6)
Female Participation in the
economically active pop. (%)
40.2
40.4
40.9
40.0
Source : National Statistics Office (1997; 1998)
Decrease in regular employment and increase in temporary employment
According to Table II-1-2, the number of wage workers of 12,101,000 dropped by 1,127,000 in September 1998, compared to 13,228,000 in 1997. The number of wage workers decreased amongst the economically active population, but the number of unpaid family workers amongst non-waged workers increased. Additionally, regular workers decreased markedly amongst wage workers in the current economic turmoil, but the number of irregular workers such as temporary and day workers increased.
Table II-1-2 Wage workers by forms of employment (unit ; thousand, %)
1995
1996
1997
Sep. 1998
Wage workers
12,736 (100.0)
13,043 (100.0)
13,228 (100.0)
12,101 (100.0)
Regular
7,387 (58.0)
7,377 (56.6)
7,133 (53.9)
6,247 (51.6)
Temporary
3,548 (27.8)
3,869 (29.7)
4,204 (31.8)
3,931 (32.5)
Day
1,801 (14.2)
1,797 (13.7)
1,890 (14.3)
1,923 (15.9)
Source : National Statistics Office (1997; 1998)
Increase in irregular women workers
Although the total population of male wage workers declined in September 1998, the figure of 63.4% for regular male workers remained unchanged in comparison to 1997. However, in the case of women, regular workers composed only 32.9%, temporary workers and day workers 46.6% and 20.5% respectively. This implies that about 67.1% of wage female workers are irregular, whose employment is vulnerable. Under the current economic crisis where flexibility of the labor market is said to be essential, women have become the first victims of the changing employment system with increases in the temporary employment and decreases in regular jobs.
Table II-1-3 Wage workers by gender and type of employment (unit : thousand, %)
1997. 9
1998. 9
Total
Males
Females
Total
Males
Females
Wage workers
13,224(100.0)
8,054(100.0)
5,170(100.0)
12,101(100.0)
7,435(100.0)
4,666(100.0)
regular
temporary
day
6,995(52.9)
4,300(32.5)
1,928(14.6)
5,086(63.1)
1,901(23.6)
1,067(13.3)
1,910(36.9)
2,399(46.4)
861(16.7)
6,247(51.6)
3,931(32.5)
1,923(15.9)
4,716(63.4)
1,755(23.6)
965(13.0)
1,532(32.9)
2,176(46.6)
958(20.5)
Women in irregular employment rapidly spread under the IMF era
Under the current economic crisis, many companies have discriminated against women and forced regular female workers to become irregular workers under the pretense of necesary restructuring. In particular, married women have been illegally targeted for irregular employment; this has rendered women more marginalized and vulnerable. In the process of restructuring, a variety of unfair labor practices have appeared with the transfer of female regular workers into irregular ones: regular workers are laid-off or "voluntary" retired and then re-employed with temporary contracts. Women are also targets of this practice. Regular women workers are dismissed and/or victims of the closure of their women-concentrated departments and then re-employed through temporary employment agencies.
5) For more details, please refer the case studies presented in "the Third Rally for Women's Job Security and the Establishment of Unemployment Prevention" carried out by Women's Unemployment Action Center affiliated with the KWWAU, FKTU, KCTU and University Students' Coalition for Obtaining Women's Rights to Work, and a collection of counselling of Equality Hotline between September 1997 and August 1998.
In addition, companies usually terminate female workers who attempt to resist these unfair labor practices. Since companies target female workers first and concentrate on women for unfair labor practices, the irregular employment of women workers has rapidly increased.
Employment situation by type
The term was introduced by the Labor Standard Law amended in December 1996. Part-time workers were defined as 'workers having shorter working hours per week than ordinary workers performing the same kind of work'. However, before the amendment, part-time employment was identified as working less than 36 hours a week in comparison with the 44 hour legal working week.
1) part-time Employment
employment situation
dramatic decreases in the number of workers having more than 36
working hours
According to Table II-2-1, the number of workers having less than 36 working hours a week has almost doubled: 2,342,000 workers in August 1998 compared with 1,283,000 workers in 1995. In addition, workers working under 36 hours have increased from 1,542,000 persons in April, 1998 to 2,342,000 in August, 1998. On the other hand, the number of workers with contracts of 36, or more, working hours, decreased by 1,627,000 to 16,821,000 persons during the same period. In the Korean IMF era, the number of workers working under 36 hours has been on the increase, but 36, or more, hours on the decrease. This means that job security has become worsened.
Table II-2-1 Number of workers by working hours (Unit : thousand)
Working hours
1995
1996
1997
1998.4
1998.8
Under 36 hours
between 1-18
between 18-36
Over 36 hours
between 36-54
Over 54 hours
Temporarily
suspended
1,283
290
993
18,953
9,389
9,564
141
1,298 (15)
293 (3)
1,005 (12)
19,317(364)
9,758 (369)
9,559 (-5)
150
1,546 (248)
345 (52)
1,201 (196)
19,321 (4)
10,240(482)
9,081(-478)
181
1,542 (-4)
382 (37)
1,160 (-41)
18,448(-873)
10,155 (-85)
8,293(-788)
136
2,342 (800)
637 (225)
1,705 (545)
16,821(-1,627)
10,088(-67)
6,733 (-1,560)
194
Total
20,377
20,764
21,048
20,127
19,864
Feminization of part-time employment
Research conducted by the Ministry of Labor shows that about 80% of part-time workers are women. Women among the total number of part-timers constituted 77% in 1993, 78.7% in 1994, and 78.3% in 1995.
Table II-2-2 Employment trends of part-time workers by gender (unit : person,%)
1993
1994
1995
Male
Female
2,566(23.0)
8,570(77.0)
3,004(21.3)
11,123(78.7)
3,490(21.7)
13,147(78.3)
Total
11,136(100.0)
14,127(100.0)
16,059(100.0)
Source : Ministry of Labor (1996)
In particular, the feminization of part-time employment in the finance industry is very distinct. Table II-2-3 indicates that 95% of part-timers are women. In the case of Cheil Bank, Hanil Bank, Seoul Bank, and the Korea Exchange Bank, 100% of the part-time workers are women. Even though women have the same number of working hours as full-time workers in the finance industry, they are employed as part-timers. This shows that part-time employment is not designed to promote flexibility, but that it is a discriminatory and distorted form of employment.
Table II-2-3 Situation of part time workers in the finance industry by gender (in late April, 1998) (unit : person)
Choheung
Commercial
Cheil
Hanil
Seoul
Korea Exchange
Agricultural Union
Male
Female
21(4.2)
482(95.8)
19(3.3)
562(96.7)
0(0.0)
643(100.0)
0(0.0)
398(100.0)
0(0.0)
568(100.0)
0(0.0)
813(100.0)
77(4.0)
1,830(96.0)
Total
503(100.0)
581(100.0)
643(100.0)
398(100.0)
568(100.0)
813(100.0)
1,907(100.0)
Source : FKMTU (1998)
Increases in the number of part-time workers in the finance and insurance industries and whole and retail industries
With regard to the distribution of part-time workers by industry, they were mostly employed in the construction industry, agricultural and fishery industries, manufacturing industry, and food and hotel industries in the 1980s. However, in the 1990s, while the number of part-timers has decreased dramatically in the agricultural and fishery industries, the number has increased rapidly in the finance and insurance industries, wholesale and retail industries and the food and hotel industries. In 1994 part-time workers accounted for 22.4% in the manufacturing industry, 16.8% in the wholesale and retail industries, and 39.3% in the food and hotel industries. This implies that part-time employment has spread in the service sector in particular; this is very different to the claim by the government and industry that the form of employment is necessary to solve the shortage of labor in the manufacturing industry.
Table II-2-4 Trends of part-time workers by occupation (unit :%)
Agri. & fishery
Manuf.
Construction
Wholesale & retail
Transportation & Storage
Finance & insurance
Food & hotel
Total
1980
1985
1990
1993
1994
25.3
16.9
6.3
3.5
2.5
17.9
24.6
32.6
25.3
22.4
29.7
20.6
13.2
13.5
12.8
7.4
9.3
11.2
14.2
16.8
2.2
2.0
1.5
1.4
1.4
1.7
2.0
3.7
7.2
4.7
15.7
24.0
31.0
34.8
39.3
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source : PCIR (1996)
With regard to the gender of part-time workers 1,170 males (33.5%) were employed in the public, social and personal service industries, 930 (26.6%) in the wholesale and retail industries, 814 (23.3%) in the transportation, storage and telecommunication industries. The wholesale and retail industry employed 4,758 women(36.2%), and the finance and insurance industries 3,290 women (25.0%).
Table II-2-5 Employment situations of part-time workers by gender and industry (unit : person, %)
Total
Men
Women
Manufacturing
Wholesale & retail
Food & hotel
Transportation, storage & telecom.
Finance & insurance
Real estate & rental
Health & social welfare
Public, social & personal services
1,378(8.6)
5,640(35.1)
189(1.2)
1,197(7.5)
3,321(20.7)
1,068(6.7)
1,042(6.5)
2,222(13.8)
112(3.2)
930(26.6)
51(1.5)
814(23.3)
32(0.9)
254(7.3)
127(3.6)
1,170(33.5)
1,264(9.6)
4,758(36.2)
139(1.1)
383(2.9)
3,290(25.0)
814(6.2)
915(7.0)
1,584(12.0)
Total
16,057(100.0)
3,490(100.0)
13,147(100.0)
Source : Choi (1997)
As seen in the Table II-2-6, part-time employment has spread to the wholesale and retail industry and the finance and insurance industries such as distribution, bank and hospital industries focusing on women.
Table II-2-6 Distribution of part-time workers by gender in the distribution, bank and hospital industries (unit : %)
Bank
Distribution
Hospital
Total
Men
Women
5.5
94.5
10.1
89.9
25.0
75.0
8.9
91.1
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source : Chong (1995)
In particular in the finance industry, part-timers have increased rapidly each year. Ratios of part-time workers by bank, show that they have increased rapidly by 102.2% in the Korea Exchange Bank, 183.4% Commercial Bank, and 246.1% in the Hanil Bank. The Agricultural Union indicates clearly that part-time workers have been substituted for regular workers.
Table II-2-7 Situation of part-time workers by year in the finance industry (unit: year, person)
Chohung
Commercial
Cheil
Hanil
Seoul
Korea Exchange
Kookmin
Agricultural Union
1995
1996
1997
1998
234
431
522
314
205
392
757
581
490
550
554
643
115
244
508
398
335
401
358
568
402
364
515
813
57
20
34
70
1,500
1,660
2,099
1,907
Increasing rate
34.2%
183.4%
31.2%
246.1%
69.6%
102.2%
22.8%
27.1%
Source : FKMTU (1998)
Note : Increasing rates were drawn in 1995. But, Those of the Cheil Bank and Kookmin Bank were in 1997.
In terms of marriage status of part-time workers by industry, the distribution industry mostly employs married women workers, and the bank and hospital industries unmarried women workers. Married women are employed in the form of 'housewife part-timers' in department stores or they are contracted out as 'housewife tellers' after their retirement. In the case of unmarried women, they are employed as 'part-time nurses' and their contracts are renewed in the form of part-time employment.
Table II-2-8 Marriage status of part-time workers by industry in 1995
bank
distribution
hospital
married
unmarried
35.3
64.7
75.2
24.8
12.5
87.5
total
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source : Chong (1995)
Concentration on males in 20s and distribution of female part-timers in all age groups
There has been an increase of part-time workers in the 20s and 30s age groups. They made up 23.9% amongst the age group of 20-29, and 26.5% in the age group of 30-39 in the 1980s, and increased to 31.0% and 31.0% in 1994.
Table II-2-9 Trends of part-time workers by age
Less than 19
20-29
30-39
40-49
Above 50
Total
1980
1985
1990
1993
1994
6.6
3.6
5.0
4.2
5.2
23.9
26.7
29.6
31.1
31.0
26.5
28.0
29.6
31.6
31.0
23.9
21.4
16.4
14.9
14.2
19.0
20.2
19.4
18.2
18.5
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Source : PCIR (1996)
Among male part-timers, the age group of 20- 29 accounted for 72.9% and others merely 10%. On the other hand, women part-time workers are distributed into all age groups. Workers in their 20s made up 49.6% and in their 30s 35.9%. Men in their 20s work as arbeits (irregular part-timers who earn pocket money), but they find regular work when they enter the labor market after terminating their education. But, since it is difficult for women in all age groups to find regular work, they remain irregular workers.
Table II-2-10 Employment Situation of Part-time Workers by gender and age (unit :person, %)
Age groups
Total
Men
Women
18 - 29
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59
60+
8,664(52.8)
4,986(30.4)
1,863(11.3)
356(2.2)
550(3.3)
2,542(72.9)
275(7.9)
70(2.0)
79(2.3)
521(14.9)
6,653(49.6)
4,696(35.0)
1,770(13.2)
274(2.0)
27(0.2)
Total
16,419(100)
3,487(100.0)
13,420(100.0)
Source : Choi (1997)
If classified by gender and age, part-time male workers made up 29.3%, but female 70.7%. This implies that part-time employment is not only a form of employment allowing women to work while also performing housework and caring for their children, but instead it is used to replace unmarried female workers by married female workers.
Table II-2-11 Percentage of part-time workers by gender and age (unit :%)
Age groups
Total
Men
Women
18 - 29
30 - 39
40 - 49
50 - 59
60+
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
29.3
5.5
3.7
22.2
94.7
70.7
94.5
92.3
77.8
5.3
Total
100.00
21.2
78.8
Source : Choi (1997)
Increase in part-time workers with high levels of education
The proportion of part-time workers with high levels of education has increased. The number of workers with university diplomas and with education under secondary middle schools are relatively high. However, 88.4% of part-timers with university diplomas worked similar hours to those worked by full-time workers (Kim, 1994). In particular, there has been a trend toward replacing regular workers by newly graduated female part-timers.
Table II-2-12 Education levels of part-time workers (unit : %)
less than middle school
high school graduates
junior college graduates
university graduates
Total
1980
1985
1990
1991
1992
1993
78.9
66.1
47.6
42.9
38.7
36.3
14.2
20.6
27.7
26.9
29.2
32.5
0.9
2.0
2.8
4.3
5.3
4.0
6.0
11.3
21.9
25.9
26.8
27.2
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
source : Kim (1994)
As examined above, the most outstanding characteristic of this form of employment is that a very large proportion of part-timer workers are women. In fact, the entire married and unmarried female labor force is now irregular, whereas before part-timers were generally married women. This is due to the fact, first, work opportunities are very limited to married women and no social supports for house-work or child caring, are available to them. And second, unmarried women are now vulnerable in the labor market since they are hired under nominal part-time contracts.
The government and Korea's industrialists have introduced part-time work as well as labor flexibility in the labor market explaining that this would solve the shortage of labor in the manufacturing industry. They have done so by tapping into the unemployed female labor force. In reality however, it was found that part-time jobs have been rapidly increased in the wholesale and retail industries and the finance and insurance industries rather than in the manufacturing industry.
Condition of labor
Nominal part-time employment
A survey on irregular workers in the distribution industry conducted by the Korean Federation of Commerical Workers' Union (KFCWU) in 1997, found that the average hours worked per week by part-timers were 45.76 hours. In detail, workers working under 48 hours made up 14.9%, 54 hours 19.8%, and over 55 hours 26.4%. This means that part-time employment is just nominal.
Table II-2-13 Hours worked per week by part-time workers in the distribution industry
Hours worked
Percentage
less than 48 hours
less than 54 hours
55 hours+
14.9%
19.8%
26.4%
Source : KFCWU (1997)
In addition, employment regulations in the banking industry show working hours of part-time workers to be almost the same as those of regular workers in practice. This is because the regulations stipulate that part-time workers' hours can be extended to 42 hours a week, if the workers are willing to do overtime work.
Table II-2-14 Working hours of part-time workers by bank
Working Hours
Chohung
Hanil
Korea
Exchange
Under 39 hours a week (30 basic working hours + additional 9 hours)
30 hours a week in standard (42 hours including overtime work)
30 hours a week (42 hours in case of their willingness)
Source : KFBU(1998)
Discrimination in wages, allowances, social security
However, part-time workers have received lower wages (they are not paid allowances, overtime pay, and receive no vocation), compared to regular workers. Daily payment of part-time workers is much lower than that of regular workers with high school diplomas. According to Kim Tae-Hong (1994), the average monthly wages of part-time workers are much lower than the first payment of regular workers performing similar work in the bank, retail and hospital industries.
Moreover, a survey by the Ministry of Labor in 1996 shows that workers receiving less than 500,000 WON per month as their basic pay constituted 74.5%, and as many as 23.9% were paid under 300,000 WON, which shows poor pay in a contractual employment.
Table II-2-15 Comparison of daily wage between part-timers and regular workers (unit : WON)
University graduates
High school graduates
Part-time workers
All sectors
24,000
18,720
16,300
Manufacturing
22,750
18,140
15,760
Wholesale, retail & repair
22,320
17,690
12,840
Accommodation & restaurants
20,930
17,900
18,060
Transportation, storage & telecommunication
26,120
21,270
14,290
Finance, insurance
32,220
21,810
20,420
Rental services
23,250
19,350
21,120
Health & social welfare
23,920
18,910
21,120
Other services
24,630
18,120
17,890
Source : Choi (1997)
Part-time workers are discriminated in terms of all allowances as well as in terms of wages. According to Table II-2-16 bonus accounted for 4.3%, retirement allowance 13.0% out of all allowances received by part-time workers, overtime pay 37.5%, and payment for work on holiday 29.2%. Regular workers obtained almost 95% of every allowance, but part-time workers were severely discriminated. In addition, they seldom receive monthly leaves, yearly leaves or menstruation leaves. Only 17.4% of companies provide monthly leaves to part-time workers, 8.7% yearly leave, 4.3% maternity leave, and 17.4% menstruation leave. Only 21.7% of part-time workers were insured against industrial injuries, and 21.7% were covered by medical insurance, 4.3% by employment insurance and 8.7% had retirement pension schemes.
Table II-2-16 Comparison of additional payment benefits between part-time workers and regular workers (conducted by trade unions affiliated with the KCTU) (unit :%)
Regular workers
Part-time workers
Bonus
98.8
4.3
Retirement allowance
97.5
13.0
Overtime pay
97.5
37.5
Works on holiday
95.1
29.2
Monthly leave
96.3
17.4
Yearly leave
98.8
8.7
Maternity leave
87.7
4.3
Menstruation leave
95.1
17.4
Industrial injury insurance
82.7
21.7
Medical insurance
97.5
21.7
Employment insurance
96.3
4.3
Retirement Pension
96.3
8.7
Source : Kim (1997)
Low union membership
Very few part-time workers are members of trade unions at present. Even though they would like to join trade unions, their low membership is explained by the fact that they are not targeted by trade unions.
Table II-2-17 Reasons for not joining trade unions even though part-time workers would like to join unions (unit :%)
Reasons for not joining trade unions
percents
I don't know.
29.0
Trade unions did not actively recommend to join.
4.1
I am afraid to be fired.
2.6
I dislike regular workers.
0.5
I am excluded from the classification of membership in the trade union agreement.
59.1
other
4.7
Total
100.0
Source : Chong (1995)
Part-time work is a form of employment signifying less hours of employment than ordinary regular workers. According to II-2-13, those working over 36 hours accounted for 65.2% out of the total number of part-time workers. This demonstrates that most part-time workers have in fact similar working hours to regular workers, but they are very poorly paid, compared to regular workers. In addition, they usually do not receive all allowances, nor even basic social security as workers. This means that part-time workers are discriminated against with regard to employment.
2) Dispatched workers
Since the situation of dispatched workers has not been examined by official statistics, it is very difficult to analyze their conditions of employment. Research on the dispatched labor force was conducted on June 1992 (Chong & Yoon, 1993), 1996,
7) The survey was conducted by local trade unions affiliated with the KCTU between May 15, 1996 and June 17, 1996. 108 questionaires were returned from trade unions and 915 from workers. Male respondents made up 75.5% and women 24.5%, and by form of employment, regular workers accounted for 85.9% amongst all participants, temporary and day workers 5.3%, dispatched workers 4.6%, part-time workers 0.1%, contractual workers 3.0%, workers dispatched from subcontracting companies 1.0%, and other 0.1%.
and May 1997(Chong, 1998).
8) The survey was conducted between late April, 1997 and May 19, 1997. Its target group was companies with more than 100 workers in the limited industries of manufacturing, electricity and gas, wholesale, retail, food and hotel, transportation and telecommunication, finance, insurance, real estate agencies, and social service. Some industries such as cleaning and care-takers were excluded.
According to a report issued in 1992, there were 120 manpower agencies, and 74 recruiters, but there are today 2,699 manpower agencies, 3,164 recruitors with over 100 workers, and 100,000 dispatched workers. If adding an already illgal form of dispatched employment such as cleaners and care-takers, manpower agencies are projected to grow to 3,573, recruiters to 3,954 (more than 30 workers) and dispatched workers to 225,000. Dispatched workers account for 3.75% of the total number of 6 million Korean workers, which is much higher than figures in Japan (0.8% in 1996) and Germany (0.3% in 1993) (Chong, 1998).
However, since dispatched employment has so far been considered as illegal, there probably is a much higher number of dispatched workers in reality. Here we look briefly at trends of dispatched employment referring to articles by Jung In-soo and surveys done by local trade unions affiliated with the KCTU in 1996.
The reality of employment
Employment situation by industry, occupation and size-- the largest group of workers are production workers in the manufacturing industry
Table II-2-18 shows that the manufacturing industry employed 59.3% the dispatched workers surveyed representing the highest percentage. This is due to the fact that dispatched employment has largely expanded in production jobs. This shows that the claim made by the government and industry that dispatched employment occurs in specialized and skillful areas, is false. In addition, the service industry makes up 18.5% of non-manufacturing sector. We can draw the conclusion that a growing number of workers will continue being dispatched to the service sector because this sector has persistently been on the increase, and because the Dispatch Act has been implemented and a higher number of workers are affected by restructuring.
Table II-2-18 Number of dispatched workers by industry (targeting dispatched workers)
Industries
Respondents (persons)
Percent (%)
Manufacturing
1,809
59.3
Food & beverage
294
9.6
Textile, clothing & footwear
179
5.9
Paper, timber & furniture
52
1.7
Publication & printing
45
1.5
Non-metallic material
63
2.1
First metal
147
4.8
Assembly metal
63
2.1
Manufacturing other machine & devices
160
5.2
Manufacturing clerical-purpose calculators & machines for accounting
28
0.9
Electricity & manufacturing
electricity trasfer
97
3.2
Visual & audible devices
105
3.4
Sophisticated medical machines
23
0.8
Auto & driving devices
202
6.6
Electricity & gas
40
1.3
Wholesale, retail industries & restaurants ,
accommodation
283
9.3
Driving & telecommunication
129
9.3
Finance, insurance & real estate agents
225
7.4
Social services
564
18.5
Total
3,050
100.0
Source : Chong (1998)
In addition, Table II-2-19 shows that dispatched employment has a clear gender segregation. In the manufacturing sector, men account for 64.6% of production workers, 88.5% of assisting production workers, and 98.2% of technical plumbers, which shows that more men are engaged in the manufacturing sector. Women made up 84.8% of clerical assistants, and 90.9% of service related work. This shows that most women are engaged in unskilled jobs employing dispatched workers.
Table II-2-19 Number of Dispatched workers by gender and job (targeting all workers)
Production in
the
manuf.
Produc-
tion
assistants in manuf.
Clerical assistants
Professional
& skilled
Skilled plumbers
Driving &
telecom.
Service workers
Simple dispatched
total
men
292
(64.6)
452
(88.5)
74
(15.2)
94
(59.9)
330
(98.2)
212
(76.8)
21
(9.1)
43
(87.8)
1,518
(72.1)
women
160
(35.4)
59
(11.5)
414
(84.8)
63
(40.1)
6
(1.8)
64
(23.2)
211
(90.9)
6
(12.2)
983
(27.9)
Total
452
(100.0)
511
(100.0)
488
(100.0)
157
(100.0)
336
(100.0)
276
(100.0)
232
(100.0)
49
(100.0)
2,501
(100.0)
Source : Chong (1998)
Looking at size of companies using dispatched workers, small and medium-size companies of 100-299 workers employed the largest proportion (39.4%) of dispatched workers. Large size companies of over 1000 workers employed 23.7% dispatched workers. Compared to the survey in 1992 where large size companies employed 57.8% of dispatched workers, dispatched workers seem to be employed in all industries without any concern of size.
Table II-2-20 Percentage of dispatched workers by size of their recruiters
Size of company
No. of responses
percentage(%)
100-299 workers
300-999
500-999
1000+
1,218
640
503
732
39.4
20.7
16.3
23.7
Total
3,093
100.0
Source : Chong (1998)
Table II-2-21 shows that the current trends in the employment of regular workers have been decreasing while the number of dispatched workers have been increasing. The highest increase in the number of dispatched workers is in production jobs in the manufacturing sector. In particular, the number of dispatched workers has sharply increased in large-size companies. The service sector has also seen large increase in the number employed.
Table II-2-21 Trends in demands of dispatched workers by sector (1994 to 1996)
Regular workers
Dispatched workers
Total
by industry
by size
Total
by industry
by size
manufac-
turing
service
small & medium
large
manufac-
turing
service
small& medium
large
total
-0.08
-0.18
0.07
-0.09
-0.06
0.14
0.12
0.18
0.09
0.20
clerical & administrative
research & development
production
Sale & marketing
other
-0.20
0.14
-0.13
0.05
-0.19
-0.31
0.11
-0.21
-0.01
-0.24
-0.05
0.21
0.13
0.19
-0.10
-0.22
0.14
-0.11
0.13
-0.19
-0.19
0.14
-0.14
-0.01
-0.19
0.03
-0.06
-0.19
0.02
0.10
0.00
-0.10
0.18
0.01
0.07
0.07
0.00
0.20
0.03
0.14
-0.04
-0.07
0.14
0.00
0.02
0.08
-0.06
0.23
0.03
0.16
Source : Chong (1998)
On the other hand, the manufacturing industry has seen a high decrease in the number
of regular production and clerical workers. This is related to the fact that they have been replaced by dispatched workers.
Employment situations by age and education level --feminization of
dispatched workers between the ages of 10-29 is very distinct
In terms of age distribution, Table II-2-22 shows that 57.6% of women are between the ages of 10-29, but also that men have a relatively even distribution between all age groups. This shows that women have more difficulties in finding regular jobs and have to turn to dispatched jobs.
Table II-2-22 Ratio of dispatched workers by gender and age (unit :person, %)
Age groups
10∼29
30∼39
40∼49
50∼59
60+
Total
men
women
601(33.4)
610(57.6)
486(27.0)
112(10.6)
371(20.6)
203(19.2)
275(15.3)
112(10.6)
66(3.7)
22(2.1)
1,799(100.0)
1,059(100.0)
Total
1,211(42.4)
598(20.9)
598(20.1)
387(13.5)
88(3.1)
2,858(100.0)
Source : Chong (1998)
The education level of dispatched workers shows that men and women workers with less than high school matriculation made up 85%. Women with education levels of under secondary school graduation make up a high proportion of dispatched women, since female education levels are generally lower than those of men, and since those with education levels of less than secondary school make up a high proportion amongst women.
Table II-2-23 Number of dispatched workers by gender and education level (unit : persons, %)
Under secondary high scool graduation
High school graduation
Junior college graduation
Over university graduation
Total
Humanities
Commercial
Men
Women
374(20.5)
279(28.0)
468(26.6)
197(18.6)
686(37.6)
343(32.3)
175(9.6)
161(15.2)
103(5.6)
63(5.6)
1,824(100.0)
1,061(100.0)
Total
671(23.3)
683(23.7)
1,029(11.6)
336(11.6)
166(5.8)
2,885(100.0)
Source : Chong (1998)
In addition, the number of women with educational level of junior college graduation was more than twice that of men. Also, a similar proportion of female and male workers had graduated from university. Although most of the male university graduates are employed as regular workers, Table II-2-23 shows the difficulties that women with higher educational levels have to find employment.
Working conditions
As shown above, regular workers are replaced by dispatched workers. In this section, dispatched workers working in similar or more dangerous working conditions than regular workers, will be examined.
Working hours
Dispatched workers have less working days a month and/or working hours a week of regular workers. However, they have longer working hours per day.
Table II-2-24 Regular workers and dispatched workers' working hours
Regular workers
Dispatched workers
Average daily working hours (hour)
27.02
25.97
Average weekly working hours (hour)
9.83
11.49
Average weekly working hours (hour)
51.13
46.83
Source : KCTU (1997)
Wages and additional monetary benefits -- dispatched workers are
paid 67.9% of regular workers' wages and receive very few additional benefits.
Table II-2-24 describes the different wage levels between regular workers and dispatched workers. Dispatched workers earned 67.7% of the average wages of regular workers. In addition, men earned 74.3% of regular workers' wages and women only 50.9%.
Table II-2-25 Comparison of wage levels by gender (unit : 10,000 WON, %)
total
Men
Women
Regular
162.9
172.5
127.6
Dispatched
110.6 (67.9)
128.1 (74.3)
65.0 (50.9)
Source : KCTU (1997)
Table II-2-26 shows that male dispatched workers received 962,000 WON and women 661,000 WON as average monthly wages. By occupation, men employed in the transportation and telecommunication industries obtained the highest payment (1,174,000 WON), and those employed as technical plumbers and as production workers in the manufacturing sector were paid more than the average wage. Women employed as professional and skilled workers, service workers and production assistants in the manufacturing sector earned more than the average wages.
Table II-2-26 Comparison of wages by occupation and by gender (targeting dispatched workers)
Monthly Wage (10,000 WON, %)
Dispatched workers wages/ regular workers(%)
men
women
men
women
production in the manufacturing
production assistants
clerical assistants
professional & skilled
technical & plumbers
transportation & telecom.
service workers
simple dispatched
Total
98.4(100.0)
91.1(100.0)
97.2(100.0)
90.3(100.0)
99.9(100.0)
117.4(100.0)
90.7(100.0)
99.3(100.0)
96.2(100.0)
65.7(66.8)
67.9(74.5)
62.8(64.6)
75.3(83.4)
101.7(101.8)
63.4(54.0)
70.7(77.9)
73.0(73.5)
66.1(68.7)
84.4
82.3
80.6
73.6
75.5
79.5
80.0
71.4
79.5
84.0
79.0
75.6
73.0
76.7
70.4
85.9
79.0
78.8
Source : Chong (1998)
Table II-2-27 shows that dispatched workers are discriminated against in terms of wages and all additional monetary benefits. While regular workers received almost all benefits, dispatched workers received no more than 50% of the benefits. In particular, dispatched workers obtained 29.7% of maternity leaves, which means womens' pregnancy and child-caring often caused unemployment. Hence, women face more severe job insecurity.
Table II-2-27 Comparison of additional monetary benefits between regular and dispatched workers (surveyed by trade unions) (unit : %)
Regular workers
Dispatched workers
Overtime pays
pays for working on holiday
industrial injury insurance
medical insurance
employment insurance
national pension
retirement allowances
bonus
monthly leaves
yearly leaves
maternity leaves
menstruation leave
97.5
95.1
82.7
97.5
96.3
96.3
97.5
98.8
96.3
98.8
87.7
95.1
56.8
54.1
37.8
43.2
27.0
35.1
45.9
48.6
54.1
40.5
29.7
40.5
No. of trade unions
81 (100.0)
37 (100.0)
Source : KCTU (1997)
In addition, companies replied that they employed dispatched workers in order to reduce costs related to wages, welfare and education. This shows that flexibility in the labor force has meant lower wages and increasing job insecurity for workers.
Table II-2-28 purpose of employing dispatched workers (targeting companies using them)
Tasks
Persons
Percent(%)
Reducing costs related to wages, welfare and education
- because wages can be reduced
- because welfare related costs such as retirement allowances, and other benefits can be reduced
- because there is no need to pay education and management related costs
77
42
19
16
46.7
25.5
11.5
9.7
Responding temporary demands of labor
- responding to temporary increases in workloads
- responding to temporary shortages of labor
- finding workers who can work at certain times
37
16
13
8
22.4
17.6
7.9
4.8
Facilitating management-and-labor relationship and lay-off
- because of preventing labor actions
- to facilitate lay-offs
22
15
7
13.3
9.1
4.2
Necessity for professional knowledge
-because of tasks necessitating special knowledge and skills
16
9.7
9.7
16
Other
13
7.9
Total
165
100.0
Source : Chong & Yoon (1993)
Characteristics of their tasks -- performing work similar to regular
workers
Table II-2-29 shows the kinds of tasks carried out by regular workers. Regular workers themselves ranked the irregular workers' tasks in the following order: 'tasks similar to those of regular workers' as the highest (42.8%) and the other ranks are as follows: assisting regular workers, simple work, and tasks that regular workers are unwilling to do. However, dispatched workers rank 'assisting regular workers' at the top. And 'tasks similar to regular workers', 'work that regular workers are unwilling to do', and 'simple tasks' are ranked as second, third and fourth.
Table II-2-29 Tasks carried out by irregular workers (survey done by trade unions) (unit : %)
Respondents' ranking of irregular workers' tasks
Regular workers
Disptached workers
Tasks similar to regular workers
42.8
20.5
Tasks assisting to regular workers
27.8
33.3
Tasks regular workers are unwilling to do
10.8
17.9
Simple tasks unrelated to regular workers
13.0
17.9
Professional & skilled works unrelated to regular workers
2.4
7.7
others
3.2
2.6
No. of workers
493(100.0)
39(100.0)
Source : KCTU (1997)
According to Table-II-2-30, only 9.1% companies employed dispatched workers because of a shortage of labor as claimed by the government and industry, but 86.7% employed them regularly to carry out particular tasks. This means that using dispatched workers is in fact a replacement of regular workers and a way to obtain cheap labor.
Table II-2-30 Patterns of dispatched workers' employment (targeting companies using dispatched workers)
Responses
percent(%)
Employing regularly for certain tasks
Employing always at certain periods of the year
Employing temporarily at times of need
514
26
57
86.7
4.2
9.1
Total
624
100.0
Source : Chong (1998)
Table II-2-31 confirms the regular employment of dispatched workers when surveying the duration of employment of dispatch workers. The companies employing dispatched workers in the long term such as over 3 years, made up the highest percentage (28.1%). Amongst dispatched workers 56.9% are employed for more than 1 year. No differences cannot be found by industry and size of company. In small and medium size companies, dispatched workers employed for less than 1 year made up the highest percentage (20.7%), but 29.1% were employed more than 3 years in large size companies. Hence, it was found that the employment of dispatched workers in large size companies has been consolidated and expanded. In addition, 91.6% of respondents renewed their contracts after their terms were completed (Chong, 1998), which shows that they had replaced regular workers.
Table II-2-30 Number of dispatched workers by term (unit : person, %)
Total
By industry
By size
manufacturing
Service
small & medium
Large
Under 3 months
4 - 6 months
7 months -1 year
1- 2 years
2 -3 years
3 years +
11.3 (8.8)
13.0 (10.2)
27.3 (21.4)
27.6 (21.6)
12.7 (9.9)
35.9 (28.1)
14.6 (10.2)
16.4 (11.4)
29.8 (20.1)
32.1 (22.4)
15.5 (10.8)
34.9 (24.4)
5.6 (5.3)
7.8 (7.4)
24.7 (23.1)
20.3 (19.3)
8.9 (8.5)
37.9 (36.0)
10.8 (15.0)
9.1 (12.6)
14.9 (20.7)
14.8 (20.5)
9.3 (12.9)
13.2 (18.3)
11.6 (6.8)
15.7 (9.2)
38.1 (22.4)
40.1 (23.6)
15.1 (8.9)
49.5 (29.1)
total
127.8 (100.0)
143.3 (100.0)
105.2 (100.0)
72.1 (100.0)
170.1 (100.0)
Source : Chong (1998)
Relation with Trade unions-- A majority of dispatched workers are
unorganized
Table II-2-32 shows that members of trade unions constituted 4.6% amongst dispatched workers. Many workers answered 'trade union are not set up yet,' or 'There is a trade union, but I don't join a trade union', which shows a situation in which trade unions target dispatched workers. The membership of dispatched workers can also be co-related to the level of activism by the trade unions of the recruiting companies.
Table II-2-32 percentage of membership of dispatched workers in trade unions
Response (persons)
percent(%)
I have joined a trade union
There is a trade union, but I have not joined any.
There is no trade union.
133
473
2,313
4.6
16.2
79.2
Total
2,919
100.0
Source : Chong (1998)
Dispatched employment has expanded because of the demand of industry. As a consequence, the replacement of regular workers by dispatched workers, worsening working conditions and lower wages, job insecurity, dismantlement of trade unions and others have increased.
Problems with the laws and ordinances related to dispatched workers
This part was refered from the KCTU, FKTU, PSPD and KWWAU (1998).
In February 1998 'the Dispatched Workers' Protection Law' (so-called dispatch law) was passed in the National Assembly in spite of strong protests from labor and women's groups. The government claims that the enactment aims to protect the rights and welfare of dispatched workers whose employment has rapidly spread, and to provide flexibility in the management of labor. It has been implemented since July 1, 1998. However, the law has had negative impacts on dispatched workers. Its potential hazards and alternatives are examined below.
Hazards related to expanding targets for dispatch, and terms of
employment
Clause 2 of Article 5 indicates that dispatched employment can be used "in the case that a position is vacated due to a pregnancy, disease, injury or other, or when labor force has to be obtained temporarily and irregularly". This provision allows dispatched employment in all industries and occupations. The obscure and arbitrary description of 'temporary and irregular work' should be clarified and made definite. Further, target groups by irregular, temporary and dispatched workers should be identified clearly enough for monitoring the employment to be feasible.
Clause 1 of Article 6 indicates that "the term can be renewed for additional year only if agreement is made between the temporary agents, the recruiters and the dispatched 20workers", and Clause 2 indicates that "a three-month term is renewable once more only if agreement is reached between the temporary agents, the recruiters and the dispatched workers". These clauses bring about an expansion of the duration of employment of the dispatched workers. In Korea most dispatched workers extend their terms by renewing their contracts, so that the exceptions in fact allow for an extension of the periods during which dispatched workers are hired.
Relation with existing labor-related laws : taking responsibility for
violating the Employment Equality Law is obscure
According to Article 34 related to exceptions in the application of the Labor Standard Law, recruiters should take responsibility for specific operations such as working hours, break-taking, holidays and others, and manpower agencies for wages and industrial compensations. This is designed to give clear responsiblities to recruiters and manpower agencies in cases where the Labor Standard Law has been violated because it cannot define clearly the responsiblities involved. However, the law does not definitely identify who should take responsibility in cases of violation of the Labor Standard Law. For example, is it the responsibility of the temporary agency or the recruiter to dispatch male workers at the request of a recruiter? This situation is also the case when contracts are broken when women marry, become pregnant, or have children.
Problems in the absence of punishments for discriminatory treatment
Article 21 related to equal treatment only indicates that "dispatched workers who have the same responsibilties, assignments as regular workers and work under the same working condition, should not be discriminated against." Since it does not define punishment if violations are made, this article cannot be enforced.
In reality, dispatched workers undertake 'similar work' to regular workers, and in very few cases regular workers carry out 'exactly the same jobs'. Dispatched workers tend to be concentrated in certain occupations. Due to gender segregation, there is a high possibility that certain workers handle jobs according to their gender.
'Equal work' is usually viewed as 'identical works,' because no Korean company has conducted work evaluation yet. Certain kinds of jobs are undertaken by dispatched workers in the workplace, so that article 21 is not enforceable in reality. In this case, the principle of equal treatment should prevail since there are working conditions where regular workers have been replaced by dispatched workers.
Obscure definition of joint responsibility of recruiters
The Dispatch Law defines responsibility of the owners of temporary agents in terms of wages and compensation for industrial injuries. However, it is limited in its protection of workers. It is necessary to define the joint responsibility of recruiters.
Since the Dispatch Law is designed to protect dispatched workers, a committee with the authority to supervise and monitor patterns of employment should be established in order to ensure implementation of the law.
The description of 'or experiences and other' should be deleted in the Clause 1 of the Article 5 defining "tasks necessitating professional knowledge, skill or experiences and other". This description heightens the risk that dispatched employment will increase in all occupations and industries.
Employing dispatched workers should be banned during the period of two years after dismissals are made for managerial reason. In addition, exceptions should not be stipulated. 'The term regulated by the presidential ordinance' should be two years on the ground that the Article 31 of the Labor Standard Law defines the same periods for preferential re-employment for laid-off workers. However, the ordinance sets up the exception that dispatched workers can be used if trade unions or a representative of the majority of workers agree in companies where dismissals occur. This makes meaningless the stipulation banning a hiring of dispatched workers for a limited period. In addition, agreement by labor is nominal if no trade union is set up by a majority of workers.
Table II-2-32 Occupations applicable to dispatched workers (related to Clause 1 of Article 2) --Implemented on July 1, 1998--
Korean Classification Nos.
Occupations
213
241
243
2444
31141
3118
3121
31317
31325
33409
3431
347
411
414
4215
4223
5113
5122
5131
51321
5133
52204
832
91132
91321
91521
computing professionals
business professionals
Archivists, librarians and related information professionals
philolingists, translators & interpreters
telegraph & telephone communication engineering technicians
draugtspersons
Computer Assistants
Image equipment operators
Radio & television broadcasting equipment operators
Other teaching associate professionals n.e.c.
Administrative secretaries and related associate professionals
artisitc entertainment & sport associate professionals
secretaries and keyboard operating clerks
Library, mail and related clerks
debt collectos & related workers
telephonists
travel guides
cooks
child-care workers
institution-based nursing aids
homebased personal care workers
petrol pump attendants
motor-vehicle drivers
telephone sales persons
charworkers
doorkeepers
2) Temporary/day employment
In Korea, since different definitions are used by the Ministry of Labor and the National Statistical Office, and even definitions used by the National Statistical Office vary yearly, classification drawing a difference between temporary workers and daily workers is difficult. Therefore, this section will look at the trends of temporary and day workers based on studies carried out by researchers.
Employment situation
Table II-2-33 shows employment trends of temporary workers since 1990. About 30% of workers were employed on a temporary basis. Male temporary workers made up about 29%, and women over 40%, which shows that women's employment has become temporary. Compared to 1990, temporary employment has slightly increased overall. However, the percentage of male workers has decreased, but that of women increased from 39.6% in 1990 to 43.2% in 1996.
This shows that a higher number of women has entered the labor market as temporary workers rather than regular workers, and along with the number of temporary workers has been on the increase.
Table II-2-33 trends of temporary workers by gender (unit :%)
Total
Men
Women
Wage workers
Temporary
Wage workers
Temporary
Wage workers
Temporary
1990
1992
1994
1996
60.5
(100.0)
61.0
(100.0)
62.0
(100.0)
62.8
(100.0)
17.5
(28.9)
17.0
(28.9)
17.2
(27.7)
18.6
(29.6)
53.1
(100.0)
64.4
(100.0)
64.2
(100.0)
65.0
(100.0)
14.1
(26.6)
13.7
(21.3)
12.7
(19.8)
13.7
(21.1)
56.8
(100.0)
57.6
(100.0)
58.7
(100.0)
59.7
(100.0)
22.5
(39.6)
23.0
(39.9)
24.0
(40.9)
25.8
(43.2)
Source : Choi (1997)
Note : The percentage of wage workers is in proportion to all workers. Hence, the self-employed and family workers are excluded.
Table II-2-34 shows that the number of wage workers decreased, compared to 1997. This represents the Korean situation of increasing unemployment due to the structural adjustment imposed by the IMF condition. The same has occurred to temporary and daily workers. However, the ratio of female temporary workers reached 60%, similar to that 1997. The number of male and female day workers has become nearly the same due to the fact that a large majority of male workers have become unemployed, normally employed as day workers in the construction industry.
Table II-2-34 Trends of temporary and day workers during the last two years (1997 to 1998) (unit :thousands, %)
Total
Men
Women
Wage workers
Temporary
Day
Wage workers
Temporary
Day
Wage workers
Temporary
Day
1997
March
May
June
Sep.
13,124
13,345
13,349
13,224
4,049
4,131
4,258
4,300
1,764
1,935
1,994
1,928
7,946
8,098
8,112
8,054
1,743
1,800
1,884
1,901
934
1,038
1,085
1,067
5,178
5,248
5,237
5,170
2,306
2,332
2,373
2,399
830
898
909
861
1998
March
May
June
Sep.
12,251
(-6.7)
12,261
(-8.1)
12,102
(-9.3)
12,101
(-8.5)
4,031
(-0.4)
4,078
(-1.3)
3,991
(-6.3)
3,931
(-8.6)
1,575
(-10.7)
1,678
(-13.3)
1,727
(-13.4)
1,923
(-0.3)
7,540
(-5.1)
7,531
(-7.0)
7,473
(-7.9)
7,435
(-7.7)
1,745
(0.1)
1,782
(-1.0)
1,763
(-6.3)
1,755
(-7.7)
797
(-14.7)
852
(-17.9)
895
(-17.5)
965
(-9.6)
4,711
(-9.0)
4,729
(-9.9)
4,629
(-11.6)
4,666
(-9.8)
2,286
(-0.9)
2,297
(-1.5)
2,228
(-6.1)
2,176
(-9.3)
779
(-6.1)
826
(-8.0)
831
(-8.6)
958
(11.3)
Source : National Statistics Office (1998)
According to classification by industry, the wholesale, restaurant and hotel industries employed the largest number of temporary workers (35.4%) and the manufacturing industry 27.0%. In particular, the wholesale, food and hotel industries employed the largest number of female temporary workers, and the ratio of female temporary workers was high in the finance, insurance and service industries.
Table II-2-35 employment situation of temporary workers by industry and by sex in 1995
Agr. & fishery
mining
manuf.
Elec. & gas
Constr.
Wholesale, retail, food & accomm.
Transport.
& storage
Finance & insurance
other service
Total
men
Women
1.2
2.5
0.3
0.1
0.4
0.0
27.0
30.4
25.3
0.1
0.2
0.1
6.5
11.4
2.0
35.4
31.0
37.6
3.2
5.4
1.3
6.4
4.1
8.1
20.1
14.4
25.3
Source : Choi (1997)
Working condition
Working hours and vacation
Temporary and day workers have shorter average working days per month and average working hours per week, than regular workers. However, they receive only half the vacations of regular workers.
Table II-2-36 Comparison of working hours and vacation between regular workers, and temporary and day workers
Regular workers
Temporary/day workers
Average working hours per month (hour)
27.02
25.93
Average working hours per day (hour)
9.83
8.70
Average working hours per week (hour)
51.13
47.65
Actual paid leave per year (days)
16.16
8.84
Source : KCTU (1997)
Wages and additional monetary benefits : 67.7% of wages of regular workers and few additional benefits
Table II-2-37 shows that temporary and day workers obtained 67.7% of the wages of regular workers. Male temporary and day workers received for 64% of wages of regular workers and women 86%, which would seem to indicate that women temporary workers received higher wages. However, wages for men temporary and day workers were 1,104,000 WON and women 1,099,000 WON which is indeed lower than those of men, if we consider the reality that female regular workers obtain much lower wages compared to their male counterparts.
Table II-2-37 Comparison of wage levels by gender (unit :10,000 WON, %)
Total
men
Women
Regular
162.9
172.5
127.6
Temporary/ daily
110.3 (67.7)
110.4 (64.0)
109.9 (86.1)
Source : KCTU (1997)
The great majority of regular workers receive almost all of the additional benefits available. Temporary and day workers received only 62.7% of regular workers' overtime pay, even if they also do over-time work. They seldom receive employment insurance, pension and so on, so that they face more financial difficulties as well as job insecurity. In addition, we can conclude that temporary and day female workers face worsening working conditions since maternity protections such as maternity leave and menstruation leave are not given.
Table II-2-38 Comparison of additional benefits between regular workers and temporary and day workers (survey done by trade unions) (unit :%)
Regular workers
Temporary/daily workers
overtime pays
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