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2002-10-28 15:06:17, 조회 : 513 |
An Analysis on Female Employment Ratio in Korea's Manufacturing Industry / by Taehong Kim
/ KWDI Research Reports /Women's Studies Forum, Vol.8 / December 1992
*This paper is the excerption of the 1991 Research Report 200-4 Changes in the Female Employment Ratio in Manufacturing by the KWDI research team Kim Tae-hong, Kim Young-ock, and Moon Yoo-kyung.
Kim Tae-hong (Senior Researcher, KWDI)
I. INTRODUCTION
Recent trends in Korea's female employment ratio (the ratio of female workers compared to the total number of workers), classified by industry, show that the ratio in manufacturing industry has dropped dramatically from 46.1 percent in 1980 to 37.7 percent in 1990.
This phenomenon is particularly evident in those sectors where there is a high concentration female workers: textile and garment (a drop from 71 percent in 1980 to 62.2 percent in 1990) and electricity and electronics (from 55.5 percent to 48.5 percent). Furthermore, a sluggish increased employment rate for women and a decline in the female employment ratio are occurring simultaneously amid a labor shortage within the manufactruing industry. This has accelerated the already existing shortage of workers in the manufacturing industry which plays a driving role of economic growth in Korea. From this context, this study will analyze of female workers and the female employment ratio: as well as the effect it has had on women workers.
II. THE TREND OF THE FEMALE EMPLOYMENT RATIO IN MANUFACTURING
As of late, the rate of increased employment in the manufacturing industries, though a little lower compared with that of the early 1970's, has been steady at a level of 4 percent throughout the year. But the increasing rate of employment for female workers has decreased drastically; for the period of 1986 to 1990, the rate average was only about 1.3 percent (15 percent from 1971 to 1875, 4.2 percent from 1976 to 1980 and 2.7 percent from 1981 to 1985). Consequently, the proportion of women in the total work force dropped from 46 percent in 1980 to 37.7 percent in 1990.
Recent employment trends in such manufacturing sectors as food and beverage, paper and printing, basic metals, and machinery has shown an increase, while employment in other industries remained sluggish. When the figures are broken down by sex, the increasing rate of employment was lower for women than for men in textiles, nonferrous metals, chemical and in other miscellaneous manufacturing sectors. The remainder of industries studied showed the increasing rate to be higher for women than men. Particularly in garment and textiles, chemical related and miscellaneous classified industries, the average rate of increased employment for women showed a negative result over the last five years (1985 to 1989). As a result, the proportion of female workers in garment and textile, chemical related and miscellaneous manufacturing sectors has been showing a continuous decline (Table 1).
Table1. Yearly Female Employment Ratio by Industry
Unit : percent
------+--------------------------------------------------------------------
| Manufecturing Food & Garment & Wood & Paper &
| Beverage Textiles Wood Products Printing
------+--------------------------------------------------------------------
1970 | 45.5 40.8 70.6 24.1 25.5
1975 | 48.9 39.4 71.7 28.7 26.4
1980 | 46.0 37.7 71.0 27.9 29.1
1985 | 42.1 36.6 67.7 26.2 24.7
1986 | 42.1 36.7 66.6 25.9 23.9
1987 | 41.5 37.2 65.0 25.2 24.3
1988 | 40.5 38.8 64.2 26.1 24.1
1989 | 39.0 39.4 63.2 27.0 24.1
1990 | 37.7 38.8 62.2 27.4 24.1
------+--------------------------------------------------------------------
------+--------------------------------------------------------------------
| Chemical Nonferrous Basic Machine Miscellaneous
| Related Metals Metal Assembly
------+--------------------------------------------------------------------
1970 | 34.3 18.2 8.1 20.4 79.5
1975 | 40.5 21.6 5.5 33.7 65.1
1980 | 36.9 26.2 7.5 33.0 56.8
1985 | 34.8 23.5 6.8 28.9 56.8
1986 | 33.5 23.1 7.5 30.5 55.5
1987 | 32.2 22.9 6.8 31.0 54.0
1988 | 30.9 22.4 7.8 30.9 52.2
1989 | 27.8 22.0 8.4 30.1 49.8
1990 | 27.7 22.4 9.4 29.1 48.2
------+--------------------------------------------------------------------
Source: Ministry of Labor, Report on Monthly Labor Statistics, revised yearly.
To see where the female employment ratio in manufacturing has been adversely effected, it has been broken down by sector (equation 1). In equation 1. the overall female employment ratio is shown as the sum of the female employment ratio of each sector to the total number of manufacturing workers. In this manner, one can deduce the impact of each industrial sector on the differential of the female employment ratio. Given this viewpoint, the female employment ratio of each sector and of the entire manufacturing industry can be found in equation 2. The differential of the overall female employment ratio will be the sum of each sector's differential (see equation 3).
Here, Ｅi is the total number workers in manufacturing industries, Ｅfi is the number of female workers in sector i,△Ｒi is the degree of influence of sector i on the differential in the overall female employment ratio. Subscript i and t represent each manufacturing sector and the entire manufacturing industry respectively.
By using equation 3, one can see the effect of each sector on the differential in the overall female employment ratio in manufacturing industries(see Table 2). According a Table 2, the female employment ratio in the manufacturing industry increased by 3.423 percentage points during the period of 1971-75, but since 1976 has shown a continuous decline. It dropped 2.8277 percentage points during the period of 1976-80m 3,9839 percentage points from 1981-85, and 4.3900 percentage points from 1986-1990. Consequently, the proportion of female workers in the manufacturing industry was 45.5 percent in 1970, 48.9 percent in 1975, 46.1 percent in 1980, 42.1 percent in 1985, and 37.7 percent in 1990. When looking at the differential in the female employment ratio during the period of 1971-75, the industrial sector's which influenced the increase of the overall ratio were machine & metal, garment & textiles, and chemical related industries.
During the period of 1976-80, Korea experienced a decline in the female employment ratio in the manufacturing industry which was mainly attributed to food & beverage, garment & textiles, and other manufacturing sectors. These industries, in addition to paper & printing, were the main contributors to the decline in the female employment ratio between 1981-85. The drop during the period of 1986-90 was mainly attributed to the garment & textile, chemical related, and miscellaneous classified industries.
Hence, not only did the female employment ratio exhibit a continual decline after 1976, the drop accelerated. And this decline was mainly caused by garment & textiles, wood & wood products chemical related, nonferrous metals and miscellaneous classified industries. By the way, the female employment ratio has continuously increased in the machine & metal. More recently, a change in the employment structure in the food & beverage, paper & printing, and basic metal industries served to boost the female employment ratio Table 2. Break Down of female employment Ratio Differential by Sector unit :percentage points
-----------------------------+--------------------------------------------
| 1971-75 1976-80 1981-85 1986-90
-----------------------------+--------------------------------------------
food & Beverage(△Ｒ1) | -0.9600 -0.3561 -0.3037 0.2570
Garment & Textiles(△Ｒ2) | 1.0739 -1.9127 -3.2080 -4.6367
Wood & Wood Products((△Ｒ3)| -0.0031 -0.1495 -0.2181 -0.0036
Paper & Printing(△Ｒ4) | -0.3562 0.0967 -0.2519 0.1034
Chemical Related(△Ｒ5) | 0.9305 -0.7895 -0.2034 -1.2071
Nonferrous Metal(△Ｒ6) | -0.2285 0.3331 -0.1127 -0.0599
Basic Metal(△Ｒ7) | -0.1183 0.1024 -0.0651 0.0988
Machine(△Ｒ8) | 4.4199 1.5989 0.1794 1.8559
Miscellaneous(△Ｒ9) | -1.2250 -1.7509 0.1996 -0.7978
-----------------------------+--------------------------------------------
Manufacturing(△Ｒt) | 3.4230 -2.8277 -3.9839 -4.3900
-----------------------------+--------------------------------------------
III. LABOR SUPPLY STRUCTURE IN THE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY
Looking at changes in Korea's population structure since 1970, the percentage of those aged 14 and under decreased steadily, while the percentage of women aged 15 and over -the age when young women are considered old enough to begin work in a factory - has continued to rise. When looking at the economic participation (EP) rate of the 15 and over age, the EP rate of women has seen a continuous increase while the trend for men has been a steady decline. This phenomenon is not unique in Korea; rather a general trend also seen in other developed countries.
In Table 3, one can see the EP rate of the female work force in Korea (Table 3). This rate of economic activity broken down by age illustrates a typical “M” shape. Based on 1989 figures, the female EP rate was the lowest among the 15-19 age group (18.6 percent), while the highest was the 20-24 age group(63.5 percent).
And after the first peak at age 24, the female EP rate dips again to 43 percent among the group aged 25-29 because most women get married during this period and/or become mothers. The EP rate again increases after age 30, and reaches its second peak(6.6 percent) among the 40-54 age group just prior retirement. Then after about 55 years their EP rate drops again. This “M” pattern of the EP rate was approximately the same regardless of the year studies. It may suffice to say that most women get out of the labor market between the ages of 25-29, but then renter the labor force after age 30. This pattern of leaving and reentering the labor market by women results in quite a different labor supply curve than that of men.
Table 3. Female Economic Participation Rate by Year
unit : percent
----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
| 15―19 20―24 25―29 30―39 40―54 55 ―
----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
1980 | 34.4 53.5 32.0 46.6 56.2 25.7
1985 | 21.1 55.1 35.9 47.9 57.3 27.4
1986 | 20.2 58.2 37.0 49.7 57.5 28.9
1987 | 21.1 60.1 40.0 51.8 58.1 30.9
1988 | 19.2 61.4 40.5 51.8 60.4 30.9
1989 | 18.6 63.5 43.0 52.8 61.6 33.3
----------+---------------------------------------------------------------
Source : National Statistical Office, Annual Report on Survey of Economically Active Population, each year
The distinctive characteristic of the female labor supply is most visible when looking at the occupation classifications of men and women broken down by age. As the results of analyzing the proportion of female production workers to total female workers by age groups, it is the highest in the 15-19 age bracket. Among women reentering labor market women in the 30-39 age bracket were the highest. However, that of male decreases as men became older.
If we compare occupation distribution by age group during the period between 1983 and 1989, while there were no distinctive changes in occupation by age, the ratio of production workers dropped. The proportion of production workers to male and female workers under the age of 25 years declined while it increased to workers age 25 and over. And when we look at the extent of the decline of production-related workers of both sexes, the ratio of female workers aged 15-19 years old decreased from 56.6 percent in 1983 to 37.6 percent in 1989, and from 32.3 percent to 28.6 percent, respectively, for those aged 20-24 years. The ratio of male production-related workers dropped from 71.6 percent in 1983 to 70.6 percent in 1989 and from 67.1 percent in 1983 to 64.9 percent in 1989 in each of the age groups; marking a relatively low rate of decline.
In particular, the extent of the decline was notably greater among female workers: while the number of women production-related workers was higher than men in 1983(126,000 male workers and 140,000 female workers) the opposite was true in 1989 (84,000 and 81,000 respectively).
This decrease in the number of production-related workers was caused by two major factors. First, the decrease in the proportion of those economically active among the younger age groups; and second, the drop in the ratio of young workers entering the labor market in the manufacturing sector. Analyzing these factors by sex, the decline of male workers was mostly attributed to the first factor; while the drop in the number of female production worker was mainly influenced by the second factor. Although the decline of female workers was, in part, influenced by the first factor, it was the second factor that had the greater impact.
Table 4. Distribution of Occupations of Female Wage Earners by Age
unit : percent
----------------+--------------------------------------------------------
| Professional Sale Service Agricultural
| Administrators & Related Related & Fishery
| Clerical Workers Workers Workers Workers
----------------+--------------------------------------------------------
All Ages (male)| 28.3 6.4 6.6 1.8
(female)| 33.1 8.9 17.7 4.2
Ages 15-19(male)| 10.9 9.2 7.6 1.7
(female)| 48.3 8.7 5.0 0.5
Ages 20-24(male)| 17.3 10.7 5.6 1.6
(female)| 57.6 8.6 4.8 0.2
Ages 25-29(male)| 28.9 8.7 4.5 1.0
(female)| 52.2 8.4 9.8 1.1
Ages 30-39(male)| 31.4 6.2 4.9 1.3
(female)| 16.8 10.6 24.6 4.2
Ages 49-49(male)| 27.9 4.0 8.7 2.2
(female)| 5.9 9.2 35.0 5.7
Ages 50-54(male)| 29.1 3.4 12.1 2.9
(female)| 4.3 7.3 36.0 11.6
----------------+--------------------------------------------------------
----------------+---------------------------------
| Production All
| Related Occupation
| Workers
----------------+---------------------------------
All Ages (male)| 56.9 100.0
(female)| 36.1 100.0
Ages 15-19(male)| 70.6 100.0
(female)| 37.6 100.0
Ages 20-24(male)| 64.9 100.0
(female)| 28.6 100.0
Ages 25-29(male)| 56.9 100.0
(female)| 28.8 100.0
Ages 30-39(male)| 56.3 100.0
(female)| 44.0 100.0
Ages 49-49(male)| 57.1 100.0
(female)| 44.2 100.0
Ages 50-54(male)| 52.7 100.0
(female)| 40.9 100.0
----------------+---------------------------------
Source : National Statistical Office(1990), Annual Report on the Employment Structure Survey.
If we look at employment distribution by age group, the proportion of male workers employed manufacturing diminishes as one moves up the age scale. In 1989, the ratio of male manufacturing workers aged 15-19 years was 59.7 percent, but it dropped to 52.8 percent among those aged 20-24 years; the ratio was 49.7 percent among the 25-29 age group, 40.3 percent among the 30-39 age group, 30.8 percent among the 40-49 age group, and 24 percent among those aged 50-54 years. The statistics on female manufacturing workers show that ratio for those under the age of 30 years old was similar to that of their male counterparts :52.1 percent among women aged 15-19 years, and a drop to 37.6 percent among women aged 25-29 years.
But for the 30-39 age group, when women are reentering the labor market, the ratio of female manufacturing workers is as high as 45.7 percent. If comparing the employment distribution of different age groups by year(1983, 1986, 1989), though there exists a proportional difference in the ratio of workers by industry, the pattern of employment distribution by age is similar for both men and women. For example, comparing the distribution of workers employed in 1989 with 1983, the proportion of male manufacturing workers increased among all age groups except those aged 25-29 years. And for female workers, excluding the 15-19 and 20-24 age groups, all age groups showed increased employment in the manufacturing industry. And looking at the number of manufacturing workers in 1989 compared to 1983, the numbers of workers in the 15-19 age group decreased for both sexes (27,000 male workers and 54,000 female workers). The common factor seen as the cause in the drop in the number of production-related workers and in the number of workers in manufacturing is the drop in economic participation by the younger age bracket of male workers. During this period, however, the rate of young male workers entering the manufacturing industry increased. The decline in the number of female workers in manufacturing, also, was caused by a drop in the number of young female workers entering the manufacturing as well as a decrease in their economic participation.
Table 5. Distribution of Female Workers by Industry
unit : 1,000 persons, percent
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
|Agriculture, For- Manufacturing Service All
|estry & Fishery Industries
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
All Male | 147( 2.4) 2,487(39.9) 3,596(57.7) 6,228(100.0)
Ages Female| 134( 4.6) 1,246(42.6) 1,543(52.7) 2,927(100.0)
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
15∼ Male| 3( 2.5) 71(59.7) 44(37.0) 119(100.0)
19 Female| 1( 0.5) 112(52.1) 102(47.4) 215(100.0)
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
20∼ Male| 11( 2.1) 272(52.8) 229(44.5) 515(100.0)
24 Female| 3( 0.3) 391(45.6) 462(53.9) 857(100.0)
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
25∼ Male| 19( 1.4) 680(49.7) 661(48.3) 1,368(100.0)
29 Female| 6( 1.4) 166(37.6) 269(61.0) 441(100.0)
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
30∼ Male| 41( 1.8) 913(40.3) 1,289(56.9) 2,266(100.0)
39 Female| 27( 4.5) 275(45.7) 300(49.8) 602(100.0)
-----------+-------------------------------------------------------------
40∼ Male| 36( 2.9) 384(30.8) 808(64.9) 1,245(100.0)
49 Female| 32( 6.5) 199(40.7) 256(52.4) 489(100.0)
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
50∼ Male| 16( 3.6) 107(24.0) 318(71.3) 446(100.0)
54 Female| 19(11.6) 60(36.6) 84(52.1) 164(100.0)
-----------+--------------------------------------------------------------
Note : Mining industry is omitted from the survey.
Source : National Statistical Office(1990), Annual Report on Survey of Economically Active Population
IV. LABOR MOBILITY AND FEMALE EMPLOYMENT RATIO
1. Labor Mobility by Sex
Even though the EP rate and the employment rate of women has continuously increased, the sluggishness of the increasing rate of female employment and the reduction in the proportion of female workers in manufacturing are factors that have caused greater mobility of both male and female workers between industries. The net labor outflow (subtract number of outgoing workers from incoming workers) from manufacturing into other industries totaled 23,000 workers in 1983, 9,000 workers in 1986, and 6,000 workers in 1989.
From this fact we can deduce that fluctuation in the economy has a short term impact on labor inflow and outflow. There was an net outflow of 15,000 male workers in 1983, -7,000 workers in 1986, and -3,000 workers in 1989; while the outflow of female workers was markedly higher than men at 8,000 workers, -2,000 workers, and workers respectively. The relatively higher net labor outflow of female factory workers adversely effected overall female employment and the female employment ratio in the manufacturing industry.
Breaking down labor mobility from employment conditions in manufacturing to the state of inactive economic participation, the net labor inflow was a -211,000 workers in 1983, -278,000 in 1986, and -263,000 in 1989; showing that the numbers in the labor force that were moving from a state of economic inactivity into employment in the manufacturing industry increased. If we break it down by gender, while the male worker's net labor outflow was -87,000 workers in 1983, -92,000 workers in 1986 and -87,000 workers in 1989; the figures for the same period for women show -124,000 workers, -186,000 and -176,000 workers respectively. From the relatively high state of non-active economic participation, the net labor inflow into manufacturing had a positive effect on the female employment ratio and total female employment.
Table 6. Labor Mobility by Sex
unit : 1,000 persons
------------+-----------------------------+-----------------------------
|Manufacturing Employment↔ |Manufacturing Employment↔
|Other Industries Employment |Unemployment
+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
|Manufac- |Manufac- | |Manufac- |Manufac- |
|turing |turing |Net |turing |turing |Net
|Industry |Industry |Outflow |Industry |Industry |Outflow
|Outflow |Inflow | |Outflow |Inflow |
------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
1983 male | 94 | 79 | 15 | 46 | 82 | -36
Female| 34 | 26 | 8 | 14 | 24 | -10
Total | 128 | 113 | 23 | 69 | 106 | -46
1986 male | 103 | 110 | -7 | 47 | 97 | -50
Female| 38 | 40 | -2 | 14 | 30 | -16
Total | 141 | 150 | -9 | 61 | 127 | -66
1989 male | 77 | 80 | -3 | 41 | 96 | -55
Female| 36 | 27 | 9 | 13 | 28 | -15
Total | 113 | 107 | 6 | 54 | 124 | -70
------------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------+---------
------------+-----------------------------------
|Manufacturing Industry↔Non-active
|Economic Participation
+---------+---------+---------------
|Manufac- |Manufac- |
|turing |turing |Net
|Industry |Industry |Outflow
|Outflow |Inflow |
------------+---------+---------+---------------
1983 male | 19 | 106 | -87
Female| 72 | 196 | -124
Total | 89 | 302 | -211
1986 male | 23 | 115 | -92
Female| 79 | 265 | -186
Total | 102 | 380 | -278
1989 male | 20 | 107 | -87
Female| 72 | 248 | -176
Total | 92 | 355 | -263
------------+---------+---------+---------------
Note: Although the eligible age to begin factory work was set at 14 years and over in 1983, it was adjusted to age 15 and over in 1986 and 1987.
Source: National Statistical Office, Annual Report on the Employment Structure Survey.
Most of the female workers (over 85 percent) who moved from manufacturing to other sectors after 1 year, moved into S.O.C (Social Over head Capital) and other service sectors. The outflow of workers from manufacturing to other sectors numbered more than the inflow of workers. If we look at the numbers of mobile workers between the service industry and the manufacturing industry, after 1983, the outward flow of workers numbered more than the inward flow of workers in all industrial sectors excluding paper & printing, basic metals and chemicals. It was this kind of labor mobility that helped create the sluggishness in the increasing rate of female employment in each manufacturing sector.
Table 7 shows the numbers of workers coming into manufacturing by sector. According to Table 7, 37.7 percent and 30.1 percent of the total number of workers who moved from service industries into manufacturing in 1989, inflowed into garment & textile, and machinery sectors, and a 38.7 percent and 25.3 percent of total who moved from manufacturing into service industries, outflowed from these sectors respectively. As such, the highest outward mobility of workers among all manufacturing sectors was in the textile & garment and fabricated metal industries. However, the turnover rate in these two sectors is not all that high when compared with other sectors because these sectors employ more female workers (in 1989 43.4 percent and 23.2 percent respectively) than other manufacturing sectors.
Table 7. Labor Mobility in Manufacturing Sector
unit : no. of persons
--------------------+--------------------------+--------------------------
| 1983 | 1986
+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
| Inflow |Outflow |Net | Inflow |Outflow |Net
| | |Outflow | | |Outflow
--------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
Food & Beverage | 2,899 | 1,633 | 1,266 | 3,916 | 4,155 | -239
Garment & Textile | 12,018 | 4,760 | 7,259 | 12,696 | 9,021 | 3,675
Wood & Wood Products| 422 | 777 | -355 | 645 | 407 | 238
Paper & Printing | 1,947 | 344 | 1,603 | 1,254 | 1,087 | 167
Chemical Related | 3,984 | 2,342 | 1,642 | 2,360 | 2,573 | -213
Nonferrous Metal | 1,144 | 373 | 771 | 845 | 426 | 419
Basic Metal | 0 | 294 | -294 | 49 | 210 | -161
Machinery | 4,623 | 3,551 | 1,072 | 8,329 | 7,974 | 355
Miscellaneous | 1,752 | 72 | 1,680 | 2,796 | 2,169 | 627
--------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
Total | 28,789 | 14,146 | 14,643 | 32.890 | 28,022 | 4,868
--------------------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------
--------------------+--------------------------
| 1989
+--------+--------+--------
| Inflow |Outflow |Net
| | |Outflow
--------------------+--------+--------+--------
Food & Beverage | 3,825 | 1,227 | 2,698
Garment & Textile | 12,075 | 7,094 | 4,981
Wood & Wood Products| 490 | 196 | 294
Paper & Printing | 1,474 | 2,333 | -859
Chemical Related | 2,101 | 1,030 | 1,071
Nonferrous Metal | 929 | 238 | 691
Basic Metal | 127 | 77 | 50
Machinery | 9,828 | 4,633 | 5,195
Miscellaneous | 1,825 | 1,498 | 328
--------------------+--------+--------+--------
Total | 32,674 | 18,326 | 14,449
--------------------+--------+--------+--------
Note: In this table, outflow refers to the movement of workers from manufacturing sectors into the service sector and inflow refers to the movement of workers from the service sector into manufacturing sectors.
Table 8 shows which sectors of the service industry and S.O.C most female workers moved into from the manufacturing industry. According to Table 8, the outflow of female workers in the service sector numbered more than the inflow for all 3 years studied; just the opposite of the manufacturing.
When broken down into sectors during the period analyzed, in wholesale and retail, restaurants and hotels the inflow of workers exceeded the number of outgoing workers. In construction, transportation, finance & insurance and social and private service sectors which recorded a positive net outflow in 1986, the outflow exceeded the inflow in 1989.
Looking at those industries from which the inflow into the service industry came, the inflow ratio of female workers into the restaurant and hotel industries has shown a decreasing trend. Of the total number of workers who migrated from manufacturing into the service industries in 1983, 31.4 percent moved into the restaurant/hotel industries, 30.4 percent into retail and whole sale and 24.7 percent into the social and private sectors. But in 1989, retail and whole sale recorded a 35.3 percent inflow of workers, social and private sectors a 28.4 percent inflow and restaurant and hotel industries a 19.6 percent inflow.
Table 8. Labor Inflow and Outflow in S.O.C. and Service Sectors
unit : no. of persons
---------------------------+----------------------+-----------------------
| 1983 | 1986
+------+-------+-------+------+-------+--------
|Inflow|Outflow|Net |Inflow|Outflow|Net
| | |Outflow| | |Outflow
---------------------------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+--------
Electricity & Gas | 166| 106| 60| 0| 50| 50
Construction | 1,433| 633| 800| 2,367| 1,464| 903
Retail & Wholesale | 4,769| 8,757| -3,788|10,390| 13,434| -3,044
Restaurants & Hotels | 1,871| 9,052| -7,181| 4,976| 7,973| -2,997
Transportation, Storage, | 671| 2,317| -1,700| 969| 722| 247
Telecommunications | | | | | |
Finance & Insurance, | 2,252| 814| 1,438| 2,065| 2,003| 62
Real Estate | | | | | |
Social & Private Service | 3,038| 7,110| -4,072| 7,255| 7,244| 11
---------------------------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+--------
Total |14,146| 28,789|-14,643|28,022| 32,890| -4,868
---------------------------+------+-------+-------+------+-------+--------
---------------------------+----------------------
| 1989
+------+-------+-------
|Inflow|Outflow|Net
| | |Outflow
---------------------------+------+-------+-------
Electricity & Gas | 0| 0| 0
Construction | 1,348| 1,468| -120
Retail & Wholesale | 6,695| 11,539| -4,844
Restaurants & Hotels | 3,034| 6,400| -3,366
Transportation, Storage, | 724| 1,105| -381
Telecommunications | | |
Finance & Insurance, | 1,905| 2,868| -963
Real Estate | | |
Social & Private Service | 4,620| 9,294| -4,674
---------------------------+------+-------+-------
Total |18,326| 32,674|-14,348
---------------------------+------+-------+-------
Note: Outflow here means movement of workers from the service industry into manufacturing industry, and inflow means the movement of workers from manufacturing industry to service industry.
2. The Marital Status of Mobile Labor Force
After 1983, even though the manufacturing industry experienced practically no outflow of married workers, there was a significant influx of married female workers. And while the proportion of single female workers to the total number of female workers entering manufacturing jobs dropped dramatically (53.4 percent in 1983 to 42.7 percent in 1989), the proportion of single female workers leaving manufacturing jobs slightly increased (from 53.9 percent in 1983 to 55.8 percent in 1989).
When looking at the distribution of workers by age and educational background, the out-and inflow ratios of female workers 25 years or younger, from and to manufacturing were 53.8 percent and 50.6 percent respectively. From these figures we can see that most of the labor mobility occurred among the younger generation. Recently, however, the inflow ratio into manufacturing jobs of those aged 30 years and over has had a notable increase. Consequently, in 1989 the out-and inflow ratios of female workers aged 25 and under, from and to the manufacturing industry decreased to 47.5 percent and 33.7 percent respectively.
Table 9. Labor Mobility in the Manufacturing Industry by Marital Status
unit : no. of persons
-------+---------------------+---------------------+---------------------
| 1983 | 1986 | 1989
+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------
|Inflow|Out |Net |Inflow|Out |Net |Inflow|Out |Net
| |flow |Outflow| |flow |Outflow| |flow |Outflow
-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------
Married|15,523| 7,561| 7,962 |19,561|13,524| 6,037|18,237| 7,825| 10,412
Single |13,266| 6,585| 6,681 |13,329|14,498| -1,169|14,437|10,501| 3,936
-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------
Total |28,789|14,146|14,643 |32,890|28,022| 4,868|32,674|18,326| 14,348
-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------+------+------+-------
3. Occupations of Mobile Workers
If we look at the occupations of mobile workers in the labor force, 58.9 percent of total inflow (10,801 workers) workers into manufacturing industries in 1989 moved as production-related workers while 24.7 percent of the remaining inflowed as clerical workers and 8.3 percent as the service-related workers. The previous occupations of workers who relocated to manufacturing jobs were, in order of highest percent, were service-related job at 38.7 percent(4,289 workers), 30.4 percent from sale-related job, 15.5 percent from clerical job, and the remaining 12.4 percent from production-related job. If we look at the occupations of clerical workers who moved from the service industry into manufacturing, 74.7 percent continued doing clerical work, and 17.2 percent changed sales and sale-related. On the other hand, of those entering manufacturing jobs as production -related workers, less than 12.4 percent did the same type of work. Most of those coming out of the service industry, having worked in sales or service related work, migrated to the manufacturing industry. A look at the previous occupations of workers who migrated from manufacturing to service industries reveals that 63.8 percent(20,838 workers) of them were production-related workers, 28.4 percent were clerical workers, and 4.7 percent worked in sales & sale-related jobs. Of those who had been production-relate workers one year earlier, 44.6 percent were, at the time of the study, working in the service-related jobs and 29.2 percent in sales-related jobs.
The study also showed that those female workers who moved from the manufacturing sector into the service sector had a relatively high level of education and were young and single, while female workers who moved from the service industry into manufacturing had relatively little education and were middle or old aged and married.
Table 10. Occupations of Workers Who Move from the Manufacturing Industry
unit : no. of persons
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| Occupations in Manufacturing for Previous Year
+------------+--------+----------+-------+-------+-------
|professional|Clerical|Sales Re- |Service|Factory| |
| |